Although there is no single explanation for bin Laden’s antipathy to America, the Gulf War and its aftermath, particularly the stationing of troops in Saudi Arabia, were primary. But bin Laden still did not yet translate this hostility into concrete action African Mango by establish- ing a paramilitary organization along al-Qaeda lines. After the Saudi
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In contrast, al-Qaeda was a top-down, militarized organization designed to wage a transnational war against the West, trying to bog it down in a total war against the greater Islamic world. Al-Qaeda aimed at winning the hearts and minds of Muslims and spearhead- ing popular resistance against the Western crusade against no no hair removal
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As an operationally organized, independent, and centralized trans national group, al-Qaeda did not exist until the second half of the 1990s—not the late 1980s, as received wisdom in the United States and the West would have it. By the time American forces had expelled bin Laden and his associates from their home base in
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